Study On The Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Study On The phrase acquire StrategiesThis chapter deals with the palingenesis of the link up literary productions. In the first section, phrase scholarship strategies and its theoretical model result be reviewed. For the second section the related research both(prenominal) international and national will be presented.2.2. Vocabulary reading strategiesVocabulary go overing strategies poop be considered as a part of popular education strategies in second lecture acquisition. The first study in discipline strategies atomic number 18a began in 1970s with research to recognize the characteristics of wide language scholars (Naiman et al., 1978 Rubin, 1975). OM bothey and Chamot define cultivation strategies as the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals exercise to t fitting service them comprehend, learn or retain b ar-assed information (1990, p.1). This explanation can be seen in Schmitts defining phraseology training strategies too. Schmitt says cu lture is the process by which information is obtained, stored, retrieved and occasiond therefore verbiage acquaintance strategies could be any which affect this blanket(a)ly defined process (1997, p.203). This translation brings this question to the mind that whether affable lexicon culture is incidental or overturn, a factor which researchers construct discussed in the literature a lot. community considers phrase study as a deliberate process which possesses intentional character. He established his description on the properties and qualities of a schema which fulfills teachers aims.Call for percentage learners improves the mode they go slightly knowledge verbiage have been do on a number of grounds. Sokmen (1997, p. 225) argues in revise to help learners learn how to acquire diction by them self, noning that it is not possible for students to learn all the jointing they enquire in the associateroom. Cunningsworth (1995, p. 38) gives a name to helping lea rners curb their protest diction learning strategies which is a powerful approach, that can be ground on being sensitive to lexicon systems, encouragement of sound dictionary skills and showing reflection to drug ab utilizationful learning techniques. By considering the vastness of phrase learning strategies, it would be very helpful to find out or so these strategies and find out what they be and analyze how these strategies atomic number 18 going to help learners for building their verbiage and likewise what strategies would be useful for the learners to be usher ind in the textbooks.brown and Payne (1994) found these tailfin steps in the process of phraseology learning in a foreign language (a) having sources for encountering new wrangle, (b) get a exculpate image, either visual or auditory or both, of the forms of the new rowing, (c) learning the meaning of the members, (d) carry a strong retrospection connection between the forms and the meanings of the haggling, and (e) development the lyric.(cited in Gani Hamzah et al., 2009, p.42) Following as a result, all vocabulary learning strategies, totally or partially, should be related to these five steps (Fan, 2003, p. 223).Vocabulary learning outline can be seen from at least collar diametrical views. First, a vocabulary learning system, very broadly speaking, could be what ever the learners do to help the new vocabulary learning process. Whenever a learner needs to speculate spoken communication, he/she uses strategy/strategies to do it. Second, a vocabulary learning strategy could be related to actions that help vocabulary learning to work salubrious. Hence, learners may use some actions which do not make any improvement in learning process. Third, there might be a relation between a vocabulary learning strategy and conscious actions that learners bump off to fill new words. Ideally, in order to have a free demote to choose consciously the able strategy for ones self, learners should be informed of healthy, expeditious strategies. This fact should be considered that, though, a strategy which is suitable and works well for one student may completely fail with an betimes(a)(prenominal) and that for a point learning situation one strategy happens to be bring out than another.2.2.1. Importance of Vocabulary Learning StrategiesThe main advantage obtained from all learning strategies, as well as vocabulary learning strategies, is that learners be able of taking more than subordination of their own learning so that students will fell more responsible for their studies (Nation, 2001 Scharle Szab, 2000). Consequently, the strategies develop learner autonomy, independence, and self-direction (Oxford Nyikos, 1989, p.291). When the students be equipped with different kind of vocabulary learning strategies they can specify how exactly they would like to come up with unknown words. Having a good knowledge of the existing strategies and the abi lity to make use of them in suitable situations might considerably make the learning process of new vocabulary simpler for students for instance, when the student selects which words to study him/her self they can remember the words better than when the words atomic number 18 chosen by individual else (Ranalli, 2003, p. 9). (cited in Gani Hamzah et al., 2009)In Nation (2001) view learners are able to acquire a large amount of vocabulary with the help of vocabulary learning strategies and that these strategies are truly useful for students of different language levels. As learning strategies are readily teachable (Oxford Nyikos 1989, p. 291), the cartridge clip that teachers spend in order to introduce different ship canal of vocabulary learning and practice to students cannot be considered as wasted. Cameron (2001) believes that children may not be able to make use of vocabulary learning strategies themselves in order to make this happen they need to be trained to use the strate gies in strength.A number of linguists have long recognise the sizeableness of learner independence in vocabulary acquisition. Gairns and Redman (1986) believe that students moldiness show more responsibility for their learning and give larger anxiety to individual needs. The reason is that when the learners past their partary level, it would be very catchy for teachers to choose vocabulary being useful to all students thus time spent on teaching may be wasted. Schmitt (2000) sees the need for resolving such(prenominal) problems by helping learners acquire the strategies necessary to learn words on their own. Oxford and Scarcella (1994) support the preparation of systematic vocabulary instruction to let learner master specific strategies to acquire words even international their classes.In Nations view (1990 2001), the just somewhat funda noetic way that learners learn vocabulary is when they use strategies independently of their teacher. In his recent publication, Natio n suggested strategy training be part of a vocabulary development program. tally to Schmitt and Schmitt (1995), the exceed teaching plan may be to let students decide themselves which strategy or strategies they prefer by introducing a variety of learning strategies. This echoes learners need to advance their strategy knowledge.2.2.2. Types of Vocabulary Learning StrategiesAs it is made clear by many vocabulary learning strategy classifications proposed by different researchers, there is a wide range of different vocabulary learning strategies. Most studies in the airfield of vocabulary learning strategies have cerebrate on investigating a small set of VLSs. For example, some studies bode at researching holding strategies or mnemonic techniques and what effect they have on retention (Cohen Aphek, 1980 Pressley et al., 1982 Brown Perry, 1991). Some studies put emphasis on exploring the vocabulary strategies use in reading, such as snapshot from scope (Huckin, Haynes, and Coa dy, 1993). In the following part we will take a closer look for at the most important category of the strategies. The basement of the strategies below is more often than not organized on Schmitts (1997) taxonomy, i.e. the names of the broad categories of the strategies come from his classification.Schmitts taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies (cited in Marttinen, 2008)Schmitt (1997, p. 206-208) based his taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies on Oxfords (1990) taxonomy of learning strategies. Since Oxford (1990) created the taxonomy for describing learning strategies as a whole in the first step Schmitt (1997) had to rescript it in order to act as a useful turncock specially when categorizing vocabulary learning strategies.According to Schmitts (1997) taxonomy, there are twain main conventions of strategies discovery strategies and consolidation strategies. Discovery strategies are those strategies which are utilise in discovering the meaning of a new word wherea s consolidating strategies deal with the consolidation a word once it has been encountered. The former consists of use strategies and accessible strategies whereas the latter(prenominal) includes social strategies, keeping strategies, cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies.However, Schmitt (1990, p.204) notes that it is very difficult to draw a border line between different strategies and their variations. For example, some strategies, like interacting with primaeval speakers, can be categorized as both social and metecognitive strategy if it is concidered as a part of overall language learning.When facing an foreign word, learners must find out the meaning of the new word. According to Schmitt (1997, p.208), de destinationination strategies which are a part of discovery strategies, include strategies such as guessing the meaning match to structural knowledge, guessing from L1 cognate, guessing from circumstance or using reference material. Since learners can ask h elp from someone in discovering the meaning of a new word, social strategies can likewise function as discovery strategies (Schmitt 1997, p.209).Consolidating strategies include several different types of strategy. In Schmitts (1997) taxonomy they include social strategies, since input acts as a key element in acquiring a language, social strategies are very important in language learning. For example, group learning and team working farms mobile processing and since in such activities instructor does not interrupt the learners much, they have more time to use the language in the classroom (Schmitt 1997, p.211).Schmitt (1997, p.211-13) mentions that another type of consolidation strategies are memory strategies which were traditionally known as mnemonics. Memory strategies usually make a relation between the word and learners previous(prenominal) knowledge, for example, instead of giving the direct definition or making a kind of relation to some familiar L2 words, pictures of th e meaning are shown to learners. Using unrelated words or grouping the words according to some categories such as synonyms or common themes are other examples of memory strategies.In addition, one can study the spelling or pronunciation of the word for helping it to stick into memory. Furthermore, using words affixes, grow and word classes can be useful in consolidating word meaning. (Schmitt 1997, p.214)According to Schmitt (1997, p.215), cognitive and memory strategies of his taxonomy are similar and they concentrate on repeating and mechanical means of canvass vocabulary rather than manipulative mental processing. Written and oral repetitions are the traditional and popular examples of these strategies writing or repeating a word several times. Word lists, flash card and note taking as well as using study aids such as language textbooks are similarly separate as cognitive strategies.As mentioned before, the strategies which learners use in order to control and evaluate the ir learning are called metacognitive strategies and this is the same in Schmitts (1997) taxonomy. Schmitt (1997, p.216) mentions that effective metacognitive strategies can happen when learners are exposed to L2 as much as possible, for example, by reading books, watching movies and interacting with native speakers. Also using the time effectively and knowing when to actively study a new word are useful metacognitive strategies.Most of the studies in this area tried to investigate a small set of vocabulary learning strategies. For example some of the researchers (Cohen Aphek, 1980 Pressely et al., 1982 Brown Perry, 1991) centered their studies on memory strategies or mnemonic techniques and its effect on retention. Some other studies emphasized on the vocabulary learning strategies which are employ in reading such as guessing from the context (Huckin, Haynes Coady, 1993). There are a few studies which elaborated on vocabulary learning strategies as a whole and give a broader a ttitude from them.The table below summarizes the different classification system of VLS.SourceStoffer (1995) outline categories1. strategies involving authentic language use2. strategies used for self-motivation3. strategies used to create mental linkages4. memory strategies5. strategies used to organize words6. strategies involving creative activities7. visual/auditory strategies8. strategies involving physical action9. strategies used to overcome anxietyGu Johnson (1996)1. metacognitive regularization2. guessing strategies3. dictionary strategies4. note-taking strategies5. rehearsal strategies6.encoding strategies7. activation strategiesSchmitt (1997)1. discovery strategies 1.1 determination strategies (DET)1.2 social strategies (SOC)2. consolidation 2.1 social strategies (SOC)strategies 2.2 memory strategies (MEM)2.3 cognitive strategies (COG)2.4 metacognitive strategies (MET)Nation (2001)1. planning 1.1 choosing words1.2 choosing the aspect of word knowledge1.3 choosing strate gies1.4 planning repetition2. sources 2.1 analyzing the word2.2 using context2.3 consulting a reference source in L1oe L22.4 using parallels in L1 and L23. processes 3.1 noticing3.2 retrieving3.3 generatingAs you have became familiar with Schmitts taxonomy earlier in this section, now lets take a look at the other classifications mentioned in the table. (Cited in nccuir.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/33390/7/55007107.pdf, 2005)Stoffer (1995) conducted the first investigation of overall vocabulary learning strategies. She fulfilled a vocabulary strategy survey and developed a Vocabulary Learning Strategy Inventory (VOLSI). Using statistical factor analysis which offer up a practical basis for category assignment, Stoffer found the 53VOLSI items go down the stairs the nine major groups 1- authentic language use 2- self-motivation 3- crating mental linkages 4- memory strategies 5- organizing words 6- creative activities 7- visual/auditory strategies 8- physical action and 9- overc oming anxiety.Gu and Johnson (1996), developed a vocabulary learning questionnaire based on previous quantitative and qualitative research (Ahmed, 1989 Gu, 1994 Oxford, 1990), that its aim is to gather information on students beliefs astir(predicate) vocabulary learning and the vocabulary learning strategies which they use (91individual strategies in total). The strategies were grouped under deuce general subdivisions Metacognitive regulation and Cognitive strategies which consists of half-dozen subgroups, guessing strategies, dictionary strategies, note-taking strategies, memory strategies (rehearsal), memory strategies(encoding), and activation strategies. In this way, in the taxonomy mentioned seven major dimensions exist which each dimension had several categories for it self. For example, guessing strategy was subdivided into two categories using background knowledge/ wider context and using linguistic cues/ immediate context.Nation (2001) developed a taxonomy which tries to separate aspects of vocabulary knowledge, and learning processes. In his classification scheme Nation (2001) differentiates between trinity general classes of strategies. The first major category is planning for vocabulary learning which is concerned about how often learners pay attention and where they focus their attention. Strategies such as choosing words, choosing the aspects of word knowledge, choosing strategies, and planning repetition are included in this category. The second major category refers to sources of vocabulary knowledge which is about purpose information of unfamiliar words. The strategies in this category include analyzing the word, using context, consulting a reference source in L1 or L2, and using parallels in L1 and L2. The thirdly and last major category is concerned about learning processes which includes the ways learners establish their vocabulary knowledge and make it available for use. Noticing, retrieving, and generating are three types of strategi es of this category.2.3. Research backgroundThere are authors such as Nation (2001) and Coxhead (2006) in the vocabulary literature who believe that there is a variety between general, academic, technical, and low frequency vocabulary, mentioning that technical or specialized words have a quite uplifted frequency in a limited range of texts in each academic discipline (Fraser 2005). Scarcella and Zimmerman (1998) make the same difference, and refer to technical words that are used in specific academic handle (p. 28). Carlson (1999) and Coxhead and Nation (2001) have written about specialized vocabulary lists for specific purposes.This is an important issue because Casanaves (1992) study showed that acquiring the culture of a disciplinary community involves learning that communitys specialized language, and fake (1991, 1993) in his research revealed the challenges of technical, academic vocabulary learning. Fan (1998) found that Chinese EFL learners have difficulty in recoding te chnical vocabulary and in writing on strategies and long recall, Lawson and Hogben (1996) discussed the sizeableness of VLS in a way that is relevant to learning the technical vocabulary of ones academic fieldIn the early stages of language learning, when the students do the tasks themselves they are more interested, this is a deliberate processing activity rather than automatic (Hasher Zacks 1979). The deliberate procedures, or strategies, conducted during this closure are likely preserved these strategies should be seen in students behavior as they do a vocabulary learning task (p. 104).(Cited in Lessard-Clouston, 2008)Strategies which learners use in dealing with the technical vocabulary learning in their early stage in the disciplines they have chosen may thus process both their vocabulary acquisition and their academic socialization. Nation (1993, p.124) stated that broad vocabulary growth depends on vocabulary strategies that are independent of contentedness matter knowl edge, and there are a number of related VLS studies from the literature of the last decade or so. (Cited in Lessard-Clouston, 2008)2.3.1. Related researches on the field of VLSThis part tries to give an overview of research focusing on several(a) vocabulary learning strategies.2.3.1.1. International researchesSanaoui (1995) in a research among both incline and French second language students in Canada came to this conclusion that while a learners proficiency level and type of instruction did not affect his or her results on an individualized vocabulary assessment task, the individual approach to vocabulary study, reflected in the structured use of VLS, did contribute significantly to lexical learning. Sanaoui used a detailed questionnaire to find out which strategies participants use for learning vocabulary, that high-flown two distinct approaches to vocabulary acquisition, structured and unstructured, which are different in five key aspects a) learners opportunities for learnin g vocabulary (i.e., independent study vs. assurance on their language course) b) their range of self-initiated vocabulary learning (i.e., extensive vs. restricted) c) their records of the lexical items they were learning (i.e., extensive/systematic vs. minimal/ad hoc) d) how much learners reviewed such words/records (i.e., extensively vs. little or not at all) and e) whether they respectable such lexical items (i.e., by creating opportunities in and out of class vs. relying on class opportunities alone) (Sanaoui, 1995). (Cited in, Ruutmets, 2005)In a research with 14 ESL students preparing for academic study in Canada, however, Lessard-Clouston (1996) withal followed Sanaouis model and used a questionnaire and an individualized vocabulary test. Despite replicating the most important aspects of Sanaouis (1995) research, his results showed that membership in a group, based on a participants VLS, did not predict language proficiency, nor performance on the individualized vocabulary knowledge test. Lessard-Clouston (1996) thus concluded that such findings raise questions about the usefulness of categorizing students in groups according to structured, semi-structured, or unstructured approaches to lexical learning (p. 114).(cited in, Lessard-Clouston, 2008)A study conducted by Gu and Johnson (1996) among 850 non-English major Chinese students in China, a questionnaire and multiple regression analysis revealed two VLS, self-initiation and discriminating attention, as positive predictors of their participants proficiency, measured by their college English test scores. They also found that the strategies of contextual guessing, serious dictionary use, paying attention to word formation, contextual encoding, and using newly learnt words had a positive coefficient of correlation with participants test scores. Using cluster analysis Gu and Johnson found five key approaches to vocabulary learning (encoders, readers, active strategy users, non-encoders, and passive s trategy users), and came to this point that strategy combinations, rather than individual VLS, may have a positive effect on their participants learning.(cited in, Xhaferi, 2008)Schmitt (1997) prepared a VLS taxonomy using Oxfords (1990) work, distinguishing two broad types discovery strategies (for initially learning a words meaning) and consolidation strategies (for remembering and using a word once it has been encountered), there may be some VLS in common for both. Schmitt asked 600 Japanese EFL learners using a survey to say how often they use different VLS, what they fell about the helpfulness of those strategies, and to mention the most helpful ones. Six strategies were common among the VLS rated most used and most helpful, which includes using a bilingual dictionary, written repetition, verbal repetition, saying a new word aloud, studying a words spelling, and taking notes in class. Evaluating the results of the survey of strategies reported by groups of middle school, high school, university and adult EFL learners, Schmitt (1997) also noted that for some VLS the patterns of strategy use appeared to variety over time (p. 224).(cited in, Xhaferi, 2008)Kojic-Sabo and Lightbown (1999) have done their research using a questionnaire adapted from Sanaouis work, a Yes/No test of academic vocabulary, and a cloze test for furling data on the vocabulary learning approaches of 47 EFL and 43 ESL students in Yugoslavia and Canada. Their main findings strongly supported Sanaouis conclusions, which is more normal and elaborate strategy use is linked to success in language learning, whereas lack of effort on the learners part relates to poor achievement (p. 190). In addition, time and learner independence were found to be the two measures that are closely related to success in vocabulary learning and higher(prenominal) overall English proficiency (p. 176). (cited in, Ruutmets, 2005 )Fan (2003) conducted a large photographic plate research, studying Chinese EFL lea rners in Hong Kong, evaluating the vocabulary tests and strategy questionnaires completed by more than 1,000 university students. Fan discovered that the most proficient participants of her study used several different strategies (notably using more sources, dictionaries, guessing, and known word strategies) significantly more often than the less proficient ones (p. 233), and she echoed Sanaouis (1995) view on the importance of review and consolidation in vocabulary learning (p. 234). Fan also noticed that strategy use are very complex and various noticeable differences existed between frequency of use and the reported, perceived usefulness of particular VLS of participants of her study. Fan (2003) thus concluded by emphasizing on the importance of helping EFL students understand the significance of VLS and encouraging them to develop effective strategies of their own.(cited in, Fan, 2003)In contrast with the large-scale studies mentioned earlier, which emphasize learners reported s trategy use, Gu (2003) conducted a detailed fount studies on the VLS of two successful Chinese EFL students (who were not English big league) using reading tasks, think-aloud protocols, and interviews to document their observed use of VLS. construct on their preferred learning styles (auditory and visual), Gus participants were highly motivated and employed a range of cognitive and metacognitive strategies and approaches in their EFL vocabulary learning. Gu (2003) concluded that the combination of these strategies and approaches created a vocabulary-learning art in which each participant exhibited the flexible and skillful analysis, choice, deployment, execution, and orchestration of all strategies at their disposal in accordance with their own preferred style of learning (p. 99). Gus (2003) study also revealed the value of interviews and case studies for VLS research. (cited in, Lessard-Clouston, 2008)There are some other notable researches. Peacock and Ho (2003) surveyed 1,006 Hong Kong EAP students in eight different disciplines and found that students in different fields use different language learning strategies, some of which correlated more highly with their participants English proficiency. Cognitive and metacognetive were the most commonplace strategies used by students, and follow up interviews with 48 participants revealed that students outside of the humanities tended to use fewer strategies and viewed studying English to be of less importance than their disciplines.(cited in, Peacock Ho, 2003) pose and Reymond (2004) have done a research with 28 Chinese NNES students studying MBA in Canada, they reported that the strategies their participants use varied significantly and changed over time, especially when later in the program for their study NNES students interacted with NES students in regular classes. put and Raymond thus concluded In contrast to the rather simplistic arbitrariness evoked in certain portrayals of the good language learner , strategy use as reported herein emerges as a complex, socially situated phenomenon, bound up with issues related to personal identity (p. 374). (cited in parking lot Reymond, 2004 )In a recent, short term study Atay and Ozbulgan (2007) examined the VLS of 50 armed forces ESP learners in Turkey, which its participants took part in a three workweek period study in two separated classes that each class was held for vi hours a day. For comparing the two English Air merchandise Terminology classes Atay and Ozbulgan used a multiple-choice vocabulary test and a strategies questionnaire (p. 42). In their study they had two groups a control group with no special training and an data-based group which was introduced to VLS and spent one of the six hours in class each day on focused memory strategy instruction (p. 44). On the vocabulary knowledge post-test, learners in the experimental group gained significant higher test scores than the control group (p. 45). The results of the strat egies questionnaire among learners in the experimental group also indicated a major amplification in the percentage of use and variety of strategies in the post-test (p. 46). (Cited in Atay Ozbulgan, 2007 )2.3.1.2. matter researchesEslami Rakhsh and Ranjbary (2003) investigated the metacognitive strategy training effects on the lexical knowledge development of 53 male and female Iranian students taking part in an intensive course of English in Tehran Institute of engineering aged 19 to 25. The results showed no significant difference in the vocabulary knowledge between two groups. However, the result of the post-test showed something different. At the end of the image the experimental group showed progress in terms of lexical knowledge comparing to control group. Thus, the findings of this study indicate that explicit metacognitive strategies instruction has a positive impact on the lexical knowledge development of EFL students.(cited in, Kafipour et al., 2011 )Marefat and Ahmad i (2003) canvass on 60 Iranian female English language learner between the age of 15 and 17,in this study they wanted to examine the effect of teaching direct learning strategies (memory, cognitive, and compensation) and their subcategories on the vocabulary short term and long term retention. In fact, they are not concern about vocabulary learning strategies in this study rather they want to examine the impact of learning strategies on vocabulary retention. As the result of the questionnaire showed, memory and cognitive strategies were used more than other strategies moreover, learners strategy use in short-term retention vocabulary was more effective than in long-term retention.The results also revealed the superiority of memory strategy use both in short and long term retention.(cited in, Kafipour et al., 2011 )Alavi (2006) in a research with 231 TEFL and non-TEFL undergrad university students tried to investigate the frequency of use of cognitive and metacognitive vocabulary l earning strategies. In order to do this three questionnaires were used, Oxfords (1990) classification of language learning strategies, Wendens (1987) classification of strategies, and Gu and Johnsons (1996) vocabulary learning questionnaire (VLQ). The results indicated that Iranian university students prefer cognitive strategies and they use it more frequently in their vocabulary learning process. The results also revealed that there is a significant relation between students major and their choice of strategies, their major significantly affects their choice. (cited in Alavi, 2006)Akbarys and Tahririans (2009) study can be regarded as one of the recent studies in vocabulary learning strategy area. They investigated vocabulary learning strategies use for specialized and non-specialized learning vocabulary among ESP students in different field of studies. 103medical and paramedical undergraduate Isfahan University of Medical Sciences students from 8 majors participated in this study all of which were passing their ESP course. For data summoning three different methods were used observation, interview and questionnaire. The finding of the questionnaire showed that the most frequent strategy was using bilingual dictionaries and the most commonly used learning strategy was oral and written repetition.(cited in, Akbary Tahririan, 2009)Gani Hamzah, Kafipour and Abdullah (2009) conducted a study in order to evaluate undergraduate EFL learners vocabulary learning strategies and its relation to the learners vocabulary size. cxxv Iranian TEFL undergraduate students took part in this study. Two instruments were used to collect the data Nations standardized vocabulary size test and Schmitts vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire adopted from Bennet (2006). The collected data were analyzed by descriptive statistics and multiple regression. The results indicate that Iranian undergraduate EFL learners are mean(a) strategy users and determination strategy